By Katrin Becker and J.R.Parker

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This book is a 'no programming required' introduction to simulation. Most intro simulation books are written for people in CS. Our book offers technical details on what simulations are and how they are built that are written for someone who is not (and may not want to become) a programmer, but who still needs or wants to know about the inner workings of a simulation. The focus will be on educational simulations (and games). Both authors have many years of 'hard-core' technical expertise in simulations but there is a real need for a book on simulations that is accessible for people outside of computer science. Writing a book like this requires people with a deep technical understanding of simulations but also with the educational expertise to know what educators need to know. We have that.

Please Note: This book will likely hit the shelves in the the fall/winter of 2011. The table of contents is still tentative in places and will evolve some as the book does. The wordle images are shown for chapters we have completed or which are 'well-begun'. These too will change as the chapters are completed, so check back often!

If you have any burning questions that you want to see addressed in our book, send us an email - we might just incorporate them (and if we do, we'll give you credit).

When we design a learning or development solution that is to be delivered using print matter or even a website, the interaction between the learner and the material is fairly obvious. The behaviour of the learning application is clear: the learner navigates through various pages, watches videos or listens to podcasts, often answering various questions along the way. This is not true for computer simulations and games. Simulations and Games are an excellent medium for learning, but they usually ‘sit’ on top of so much programming that it is nearly impossible to understand what’s happening behind the scenes without actually being a programmer yourself. This book will demystify what’s going on for the rest of us.

The field of modeling and simulation is a diverse one. Virtually every discipline uses simulation and modeling to answer questions in research and development, and more and more are also using them for training and education. As Bernard Zeigler said in 1976, even though mathematics is pervasive, people from different disciplines don't do calculations differently; what is different is what and when they calculate as well as why. Zeigler goes on to say that the same is true of simulation and modeling: “it has its own concepts of model description, simplification, validation, simulation, and exploration, which are not specific to any particular discipline.” (Zeigler, 1976, p.vii) This book will explain those.

There is a reason why race car drivers often start out as (professional or amateur) mechanics: In order to get the best performance out of your vehicle, you need to really understand it, and in order to do that, you need to know how it works. This is also true of ‘technology’. Just because you use some application or piece of software does not mean you know it. There are FAR far too many people out there designing computer-based educational applications who know very little about how the computer actually works. If you would like to know more about how the technology you use works, then this book is for you.

You do not need to have a degree in IT or CS to understand this book (collectively, the authors have five of them), but if you want to design or use simulations and games for training and education, then you DO need to know more about these applications than you probably do now.

This book is for anyone involved in the design, development, or use of simulations and games as part of a learning solution. It is for professional trainers, educators, development teams, and decision and policy makers. It assumes a basic computer literacy, but does not assume you know how to program. It assumes basic mathematical proficiency at the high school level.

The first part sets the context for the book. This section will introduce the vocabulary and fundamental concepts that will be used in this volume, while outlining some of the typical misconceptions in Ed Tech. There are a great many misconceptions as well as disparate definitions for some of the vocabulary needed to talk about and understand simulations and games. This is especially true in education and many of the popular textbooks and other volumes used in Ed Tech programs perpetuate these misconceptions. These differences result in friction and misunderstandings in research, development and policy that interfere with the ability of formally trained educationists to use this medium effectively.

1. Spoilers

Before you get into the nuts and bolts of how simulations and games work, we would first like to feature several examples to give you a sense of what you are getting into. These are examples of fully functional simulations and games. The point of these examples is to show the kinds of applications we are talking about. We will also be referring to some (or all) of these at various points throughout the book. Most of these are far too complex to examine in detail, but we will refer to aspects of these examples. Approx. 20 Pages

A Sneak Peak at Simulations
1. Microsimulation of Traffic Flow
2. GRI Virtual Remote Operated Vehicle Simulator
And Games
1. Mario Kart
2. Portal II
For Education and Training
1. The Coole Immersive Service Rig Trainer
2. FoldIt
3. FloodSim
4. Real Lives
5. Booze Cruise
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

2. Fundamentals

This chapter defines the context or domain in which you will be working through the rest of the book. It introduces simulation and modeling as general concepts and provides the algorithmic background and communication tools that will be used to describe the examples that are developed later chapters. Approx. 20 Pages

Why Definitions Matter
Modeling Vs. Simulation
What Is A Simulation?
Simulations and Games before Computers
Brief History Of Computer Simulation
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

3. Going Digital

This chapter deals with how things change when we change from traditional or analog solutions to interactive digital ones. There are repeated discussions and debates in the serious games community about the relative meanings of simulation and game, and there is no consensus. This chapter will explain and justify our perspective. Approx. 20 Pages

Traditional Vs. Computer Simulations in Education
1. What is an Educational Simulation?
  1. Brief History Of Educational Simulations
  2. The Edutainment Era
  3. The Simulation-Game Continuum
What is a Game?
The Problem With Reality
All Games Are Simulations
Synergy: Analog Sims and Games Meet Computer Simulations and Games
1. What They Share
2. How Going Digital Changes Things
  1. Base Model
  2. Rules
  3. Affordances
  4. Validity
  5. Closure
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

4. How Programs Work

If you “look under the hood” of a computer simulation or game you will find that what drives the application is a set of computer programs. It is not necessary to understand any specific programming language or even to have ever written a program. Nonetheless in order to understand how simulations work, you need to understand how the algorithms that drive them work - at least well enough to be able to talk about what they are doing and how they are doing it. In order to do that you need a vocabulary for talking about algorithms. This chapter provides that vocabulary in the form of flowcharts which will be used throughout the remainder of the book to describe and outline the simulations and games you will develop. Approx. 20 Pages

Algorithms
Example 1: A Bad Algorithm and Basic Flowcharts
Example 2: Navigating an Automated Telephone Answering System: Decisions, Input, and Output
Re-Cap
Example 3: Mowing The Lawn: Modules
Example 4: Making an Egg Salad: Iteration, Complexity, and Parameters
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

This section forms the heart of the book, and covers the technical details of simulations. It provides an overview of the kinds of simulations that exist and then focuses on that subclass of simulations, namely discrete-event simulations, of which almost all educational computer simulations and games are a part. Towards the end of the section we talk about how simulations can be assessed so it is possible have some confidence in the accuracy/efficacy of the experience that comes out of using a sim or game in a learning situation.

5. The Stuff of Which Simulations are Made

This chapter provides a similar kind of introduction to what is usually offered in a computer simulation textbook, but without the math and code. Approx. 25 Pages

The Passage of Time
Continuous Simulations
Discrete Simulations
When Discrete Becomes Continuous
Hybrid Simulations
How Simulations Advance
1. States and Events
Designing a Simulation
1. Deciding What's Important
2. Needs Analysis
  1. When is Simulation Appropriate?
  2. When is Simulation Not Appropriate?
3. Step-Wise Refinement
4. Original System
5. Observable Elements
6. Data Gathering
7. Conceptual Model
8. Operational Model
9. Computer Implementation
Sample Systems
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

6. Randomness

Random numbers are key to computer simulations and this section will help readers understand what they are, how computer-generated random numbers work and how they are used in simulations and games. Approx. 30 Pages

What Does Randomness Mean?
Randomness in games: dice, cards
Generating Random Values
Random events in real life: measuring randomness
Simulating reality and intelligence
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

7. Example: Single Server Queuing System

This example is a classic first example in digital systems: namely that of a single server queueing system. Banks typically have a single queue where people line up and several tellers to serve them. This example demonstrates the organization and approach that will be used for the more complex examples later in the book. Approx. 30 Pages

Introduction
System Analysis
1. Needs Analysis
2. Original System
3. Observable Elements
4. Obtainable Data
5. Simulation Events
6. Simulation Input Data
7. Collectable Data
8. Conceptual Model
The Arrival Process
1. Distributions
2. Simulating Arrivals
The Queue
The Server
The Simulation
1. The Main Loop
2. The Sequencing Set
3. Arrivals
4. The Queue
5. Departures
System Output
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

8. Visualization

The point of any simulation is to answer some question or set of questions. To that end, how the ‘output’ gets presented and displayed will profoundly affect how useful a simulation is. This chapter will provide an overview of the typical formats for simulation output, and talk about the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Approx. 30 Pages

The Many Faces of Simulation Output
Text
1. Example 1: Simple Harmonic Motion Simulation
2. Example 2: Single Server Queue
Graphics
1. 2D Graphics
2. Graphs and Charts
3. 3D Graphics
4. Displaying 3D Meshes
Animations
1. What Is An Animation?
2. Interactive Animations, Games, and Virtual Reality
Sound
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

9. Verification & Validation

How do you ensure that the simulation you design simulates your model faithfully? In order to have confidence that the key elements of the simulation are faithful implementations of the original system it is necessary to verify both the model and the resultant simulation. This chapter will explain the process and examine several example approaches. Approx. 30 Pages

What is Verification & Validation in a Simulation or a Game?
How Do We Know There’s A Problem?
1. Collecting Confirming Data
Verification
1. Code Verification
2. Solution Verification
Validation
1. Conceptual Model Validation
2. Face Validity
3. Internal Validity
4. Event Validity
5. Sensitivity Analysis
6. Historical validation
7. Predictive Validation
8. Extreme Condition/Degenerate Tests
Validation and Verification of Games
1. Play Testing
2. Effectiveness
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

10. Simulations and Games for Learning

The simulations we have been looking at and talking about have been fairly generic simulations that could be used for any number of purposes. Most of the simulations that are created and used throughout the world are either experimental simulations intended to answer some question or 'what-if' scenario or experiential simulations built to assist in the design of equipment, buildings, and systems. A growing number of simulations and games are being used for training and education and these have special requirements. In this chapter we look at how things change when we decide to use a simulation for education. Approx. 30 Pages

Design
Simulation Design
What Changes when the Simulation is a Game?
1. Choosing a Goal and a Topic
2. Research and Preparation
3. Design Phase
  1. Player - Game Interface
  2. Gameplay and Game Mechanics
  3. Program Structure
  4. Evaluating the Design
4. Pre-Programming Phase
5. Programming Phase
6. Playtesting Phase
7. Post-Mortem
The Gamified Simulation Design Process
Instructional Design
1. Bloom’s Taxonomy
2. Systematic Design of Instruction
  1. The ADDIE Model
  2. Dick & Carey
  3. Morrison, Ross and Kemp
Agile Instructional Design
Combining Instructional Design with Simulation and Game Design
Beware the Decorative Media Trap
Synergy: Serious Game Design
1. Discovery
2. Research and Preparation
3. Design Phase
4. Conceptual Model
5. Operational Model
6. Final Testing
7. Serious Game Design Guidelines

- Summary

Concepts
Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

This Section Will Develop A Few Simulations Using Some Of The Tools Described. It is intended to pull together what has been presented in the previous sections so we can see how a simulation might be designed and built. In includes some of the tools available for building simulations that do not require programming experience, and then works through several examples, the last one of which is a game.

Each example will be developed using the same (classic computer simulation) approach:

System Analysis – define the system’s important components, interactions, relationships, and behaviors
System Synthesis – organize the model, figure out what data are needed, and collect those data
Verification – compare the model’s responses with those we would have expected if indeed the model was built as it should have been
Validation – this is where we compare the actual output with actual observations

11. Simulation Tools

This chapter will describe several freely available tools that can be used to build simulations and games. Approx. 35 Pages

Game Making Software
1. GameMaker
  1. Example – Space Battle
2. UDK: The Unreal Development Kit
3. Greenfoot
  1. Example - Cannons
Spreadsheet Games & Sims
1. Example: Egg Money
2. Example: Stalin's Dilemma
Simulation SDKs
1. GameMaker
2. OpenModelica (http://www.openmodelica.org/)
  1. Limited Bacterial Growth
3. VisSim (http://www.vissim.com/)
  1. Limited Bacterial Growth
4. Simio (http://www.simio.com/)
  1. Single Server Queuing System
5. Extend (http://www.extendsim.com/)
  1. Single Server Queuing System
6. Second Life – Simulating a World
The Right Tool for the Job
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

12. Example 1: A Hospital Emergency Department (Single Server Queuing System II)

Here we will develop a different example of the same type of simulation as was developed in Chapter 8 and then look at several ways to modify it, such as adding customer priorities and preferences. Approx. 25 Pages

Hospital Emergency Department (Another Queuing System)
System Analysis
1. Reneging
2. Triage – Two Priorities
3. Tandem M/M/1 Queues
4. Ambulance Entry – Jumping the Queue
System Synthesis
Implementation
1. Implementation of Reneging
2. Priority Queues
3. Tandem Queues
4. Ambulance Arrivals
5. Completing the ED Simulation
Verification & Validation
1. Splitting Interarrival Times
2. Reneging
3. Priority Queues
4. Tandem Queues
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

13. Example 2: Boarding a Passenger Airliner (Decision Making)

The second example attempts to answer the question, “What is the most efficient way to load passengers onto an airplane?” Approx. 25 Pages

Aircraft Loading
1. Microsimulation
2. Microsimulation Solution to Loading Problems
System Analysis
System Synthesis
1. Interference
  1. Isle Seat Interference
  2. Middle Seat interference
  3. Middle and Isle interference
  4. Isle Interference
2. Delays in the System
Implementation
1. The Simulation Framework
2. The Passenger
  1. Waypoints and Paths
  2. States in the Simulation – The Finite State Machine
3. Timing and Organization – The Agent
  1. Other Details
4. The GreenFoot Simulation
Verification & Validation
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

14. Example 3: Cooking Simulation and Food Safety (Compliance Training)

The objective of this simulation will be to illustrate the need for compliance to food preparation safety rules by creating a simulation wherein simulated food can be prepared and consequences of the activities can be assessed. Approx. 20 Pages

Simulations for Compliance Training
Discovery
1. Choose Objective and Premise
2. Task Analysis
3. Identify Performance Gap
4. Performance Objectives
Research and Preparation
1. Describe the Original System
2. Identify the Observable Elements
3. Gather Data
Design Phase
1. Message Design
2. Instructional Strategies
3. Assessment Design
4. Interface Design
5. Gameplay and Game Mechanics
6. Program Structure
7. Evaluation of the Design
Create Conceptual Model
1. Gestalt - The Concept of Bread
2. Ingredient Histories
3. Bacterial Growth
4. Egg Salad Algorithm
Create Operational Model
1. Artisitc Assets
  1. Animation
  2. Sound
2. Programming Phase
Testing
1. Playtesting
2. Post Mortem
  1. Downloadable Sprite Graphics
  2. Downloadable Sound Effects
  3. Sound Editing Tools
  4. Animation Tools
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

15. Example 4: Stock Trading (Serious Game)

The final example takes what we have learned about simulations and applies it to the design of a simple game designed to help people learn about the stock market and share trading. Approx. 20 Pages

Serious Games
Discovery
1. Choose Objective and Premise
2. Task Analysis
3. Identify Performance Gap
4. Performance Objectives
Research and Preparation
1. Describe the Original System
2. Identify the Observable Elements
3. Gather Data
Design Phase
1. Message Design
2. Instructional Strategies
3. Assessment Design
4. Interface Design
5. Gameplay and Game Mechanics
6. Program Structure
7. Evaluation of the Design
Create Conceptual Model
Create Operational Model
1. Programming Phase
  1. Data
  2. Objects = Companies
  3. Crawl
  4. Graphs
  5. Purchase/Sale
  6. Score
Testing
1. Playtesting
2. Post Mortem
  1. The Making of Taking Stock
Summary
1. Concepts
2. Terminology
References, Notes & Further Resources

Summary

16. Now What?

Here is where we summarize what we’ve talked about and what we’ve learned; see some more examples of what we can do with what we’ve learned, and look at where we could turn for our next steps. Approx. 15 Pages

The glossary will contain definitions and explanations of the major terms and concepts introduced in the book. Terms will be defined as they are introduced in the chapters, but definitions will often continue to develop as we work through the book. The ‘final’, complete definition appears here. Each entry will also indicate where in the book it was first introduced (which chapter).

Each game, simulation and software application mentioned in the book will be listed here. The format will be similar to a reference list, but games, sims, and software are often difficult to list using standard citation styles. Most will include a URL (game website, software developer’s site, etc.). They are separate to make it easier for readers to look them up, and because they are usually referenced in a different context from the books and other publications that will be listed in the references.